Fears of an uncontrollable winter wave of coronavirus infections have prompted a growing number of European governments to close schools, breaking with a previous consensus that face-to-face teaching must be maintained. The UK, Ireland, Germany, Denmark and some northern Italian regions have all ordered schools to shut for several weeks to try to contain infections, in some cases on the back of extended Christmas holidays.

The shifting European consensus has been driven in part by concern over new, more transmissible coronavirus strains, which have been linked to soaring infection rates in some countries. “We know how important it is for parents to have to look after children and how important learning is for children . . . and how important educational qualifications are in our country,” said Markus Söder, prime minister of Bavaria, on Tuesday after

Germany said its schools would remain closed until at least the end of January. It was a “difficult decision”, Mr Söder said.

European countries largely kept schools open last autumn even as they imposed a second lockdown, shutting bars, restaurants, leisure venues and non-essential shops. It was a stark contrast with the first lockdown in the spring when many switched to remote learning despite warnings from teachers and experts that it would exacerbate educational inequalities and cause psychological and even nutritional harm.

The comparatively consistent European commitment to keeping schools open had also stood in contrast to the US, where a debate about whether to reopen or keep schools closed raged all year in school districts across the country.